For info on the thematic structure, see the introduction page.

I: 1.1 The Immortal Hero

In the E&A themes of the "immortal hero", Achilles still thinks he can get out of there alive. He chooses life, so to speak. In the quarrel with Agamemnon, when he sheaths his sword; in the Embassy of E&A 2, when he refuses to go to battle. See the (im)mortal hero.
The "immortal" in the title of this theme applies not only to Achilles at this stage, but also to Diomedes, the too-good-to-be-true hero. For more on Diomedes see here.
The two "Truce and Duel" themes surrounding the aristeia are one reason to associate this theme with "past". Helen introducing the heroes to Priam (Il 3.121-) is another one.

1.1 Embassy & Assembly 1

A most carefully structured part of the poem. Two assemblies surround a divine intermezzo. The assembly parts start off with a short introduction, the first explaining the wrath of Apollo, the second the plan/wrath of Zeus(2). The two assemblies have a number of likenesses and contrasts, mainly:

1.1 the First Assembly

On the surface, Agamemnon is shown to be most in the wrong during the visit of Chryses and the quarrel with Achilles. This is a rhetorical must: Achilles is after all a proxy for the listener, the hero one is supposed to identify with. But we do have to notice what Achilles is actually doing:

1. He calls an assembly without consulting either the king or the council. In every day and age, a king would see this as a challenge to his leadership(3).
2. His statement "we have been rebuffed, we had better go back" is a direct attack: it says "you have failed" to the king.
3. Achilles reassures Kalchas who is afraid of the anger of the king, that he will protect him, explicitly naming Agamemnon.
4. In this society, the king typically promises a share of the loot to the men in return for fighting for him. Here, ironically, it is Achilles who promises the king a new prize when they sack Troy (Il 1.127-9)

In other words, Achilles is attacking the leadership of Agamemnon, with a view to boosting his own. This is typically the kind of action that Hera (see 1.53) would inspire in a man.

1.1 the Wrath of Apollo, Chryses' embassy

Again, note the thematic likenesses between the Chryses theme and part of the Achilles story:

• A man is dishonoured (by taking a woman from him). He withdraws and calls on a god for help.
• The god intervenes and punishes, killing many
• In the end, the god's will is done, honour is restored and the parties are reconciled

But there is a special kind of role for Apollo in the Iliad.

1.1 proem: the Wrath of Achilles, the will of Zeus

• About Il 1.5: I prefer "daita" to "pasi" because it is more in tune with Homeric irony. In translation: "a prey for dogs and a feast for birds" vs. the rather lame "a prey for dogs and all birds". The irony is in the fact that he is singing this at a feast and the guests are "feasting on" a huge man-killing poem. Moreover, this makes the Iliad begin and end with a meal (24.802).
• See also Il 22.354: ἀλλὰ κύνες τε καὶ οἰωνοὶ κατὰ πάντα δάσονται (Ach. to Hector)
• the "Plan of Zeus" mentioned in this line, is the root idea of the whole poem. The Plan entails having "many Achaians slaughtered by the ships" which, again, is just what this poem is doing. But it does not stop there, there is a deeper layer of meaning to this phrase. More on this here.

1.12 Chryses requests the girl from Agamemnon

All women in the Iliad (and Penelope in the Odyssey) fulfil the double role of being a real live woman and being a prize (γέρας), a token of honour for the man who won.

1.37 Chryses' prayer to Apollo

Apollo answers two prayers by Chryses:
1. punish the Achaians (1.43)
2. protect the Achaians (1.457)
which is exactly the program of the Iliad.

1.53 Achilles calls an assembly

Here, in Homer's "Achilles judgement", is his first choice: status, being best. Hera seems to offer him this (1.55) - calling an assembly is the act of a king - and the ensuing quarrel makes clear that he cannot have it, he cannot be "best of the Achaians" this way. See here Agamemnon is the better man because he rules more people (1.281). All the same, Hera loves them both (1.195-6).

1.68 Kalchas, seer by the grace of Apollo

1.68 "Prophecy" is one of the domains of Apollo. A prophet is someone who says "if you do this, that will happen", in past, present or future mode. Within the Ionian world of Homer's time, the Iliad itself is a prophecy "change your politics or you will be kicked out of Asia" in other words: "soon you will need Achilles".

1.109 wants another prize

We see Agamemnon defending his number one position. Prize = honour.
ἀπολέσθαι: the poet loves wordplay like Apollo - ἀπ-ολέσθαι (destroy). "I love her better than my wedded wife" is surely not something you could say even in Ancient Greece without condemning yourself.

1.121 Achilles: when we sack Troy

Achilles is acting like a king: dividing the loot of the yet-to-be-sacked city.

1.188 Athena's intervention

Here, in Homer's "Achilles judgement", is his second choice: "success" as represented by the goddess Athena. This means being a victor, getting the loot and living to enjoy it. Achilles wants it but he has yet to learn that he cannot have all of it.

1.195 Hera sends Athena to calm him

Hera loves them both: this means both of them can claim to be "best of the Achaians".

1.212 Athena's prophecy (threefold gifts)

Cleverness or cunning and material gain are clearly related in Greek thinking. Take the word "kerdistos": both "most crafty, most cunning" and "most profitable". So Athena's offer here is both clever and profitable: threefold gifts.

1.233 Achilles swears by the sceptre

The description of the sceptre is a picture of exile: "a man is like a tree" is an obvious metaphor. He is "rooted" in a certain place and he may be founder of a large family with many "branches". If he is exiled, this sceptre which has been cut from its stump, is a fitting picture. For the stump I also refer to the "stump that has not rotted in the rain" (Il 23.326-) that is a sign for Antilochos to turn around. Another reference may be the tree trunk that is the foundation of Odysseus' bed (Od 23.181-)

1.240 "soon you will need Achilles"

In view of the actual political and military situation in Ionia in Homer's time (see here) this oath is really a prophecy: "soon you will need (an) Achilles to save your cities from the enemy".

1.247 Nestor's advice

This whole theme appears to be about "obeying". The Greeks, being a warrior people, habitually "obey" the voice of heroism represented by Nestor (see here ). Nestor wants the two quarrelsome heroes to obey him instead of unheroic quarreling, but Agamemnon accuses Achilles of wanting to be the best of them all, the leader who orders everyone about. Agamemnon is not going to obey that. Achilles in turn refuses to obey Agamemnon though he will not fight him on account of the girl.

1.306 embassies to Achilles and Chryses

Here we have a repeated sequence which I have split up. This is a curious case where the likenesses between "1.306 embassies to Achilles and Chryses" and "1.493 Thetis' embassy to Zeus" rival the likenesses between the former and "1.1 the Wrath of Apollo, Chryses' embassy". The first because it is a repeated sequence: request for honour - complaint about lack of honour - meal and reconciliation. Achilles is of course not yet reconciled, but Apollo is. The second makes it a ring with "1.1 the Wrath of Apollo" because it closes that theme, an embassy by Chryses is balanced by an embassy to him, a prayer "punish the Achaians" is counteracted by "save the Achaians".

1.349 Achilles' complaint

Achilles' complaint, like Hera's (1.534) is about honour: the girl is his geras, his prize of honour.

1.393 Achilles asks for help, Thetis promises

"Be careful what you wish for": Achilles asks for honour, Zeus is to provide this for him by having the Achaians slaughtered by their ships, see 2.1-. It, the Plan of Zeus, will not make Achilles happy. "Do not take gifts from Zeus.." (WD 86-). They do not come without a price to be payed, which is only just I suppose.

1.503 honour my son - Zeus remains silent

Thetis to Zeus
- "Honour my son": no answer
- "If you honour me": Zeus reluctantly nods.
One of the many hints what the poet really feels about Achilles.

1.524 Zeus nods his head

Zeus accepts the request but he does not tell anybody what he really has in mind. Achilles will get his honor but not the way he expects it. His road to honor includes some hard learning: the death of Patrocles, the unquenchable anger with Hector (and himself) and the insight developed in the meeting with Priam. That way lies real honor.

1.534 Hera's complaint

Hera complains that Zeus does not sufficiently take her into account, by not consulting her or by honouring another goddess. This corresponds with the "I want to be first"-force that Hera represents.

2.1 the Second Assembly

Here the Plan of Zeus (or at least the first part of it), already mentioned in Il 1.5, is conceived. Its realization is somewhat delayed, in the first day of battle there is no question of the Achaians being "slaughtered by the ships"(4). This plan properly refers to the great day of battle that starts at Il 11.1 and subsequent events. That day the fighting actually reaches the ships which is the signal for Achilles to send Patrocles into battle.

2.1 Zeus is against Agamemnon but Nestor is with him 1

A repeated sequence ABCDABCD stating Agamemnon's false dream, its source and its effect. The repetition of the dream contents stresses very much its message: Troy is not to be conquered now. There is a connection with the "wrath of Apollo" theme in the first assembly: the wrath of Apollo vs. the wrath of Zeus (Zeus doesn't seem very angry here but the Achaians would interpret their coming failure on the battlefield as the wrath of Zeus). Also, Agamemnon's error: refusing Chryses in the first, accepting pseudo-Nestor in the second assembly theme. He obeys the wrong old man.

2.1 Zeus' deceptive plan; Agamemnon accepts

Obviously, the way to honour Achilles is to let the Achaians be defeated. Are you an Achilles? If you were the star player in a team, not playing now because of a quarrel with the coach, would you be hoping for a defeat of your team in the coming match?

2.1 Zeus can't sleep

A good king, in return for his privileges, is supposed to lay awake at night worrying about the welfare of his people. Exactly like a good shepherd, he stays awake guarding his sheep from predators. Zeus does this, Agamemnon does not (2.23). In book 10 he has learned, apparently.

2.16 the False Dream

If indeed the Ionian Migration is going on in Homer's time, this is a strong attack on it. Homer says: "you cannot conquer Troy now". This is repeated in 2.413- where Agamemnon prays for the fall of Troy today and is refused. The Troy plan is not completely denied: see 15.71.

2.72 Nestor accepts it

Nestor actually says (2.80): "nobody would believe this, but since it is our commander who says so, we should act on it". Is Homer the Exile sneaking in his own dark ironical view: "this is folly, but you have to obey your commander of course"?

2.142 Odysseus' 2 speeches

Odysseus addresses two audiences. The first are "kings and prominent men", the second the "common people". This last category means the other warriors, not the non-warrior rabble that is (almost) outside the scope of the Iliad. This corresponds to the double-layered rhetoric of the Iliad. More on this here.

2.211 Thersites, Odysseus' intervention

Thersites, the other side of Achilles, gets beaten with the sceptre just like the people in Odysseus' "speech to commoners" (Il 2.198-). He and Achilles could be connected with the concept of "pharmakos", the scapegoat (sacrifice). Probably the Homer's public would notice this connection. The Patrocles story clarifies to us what the "sacrifice" entails. More about this here.

2.216 Thersites

Note that "worst of the Achaians" Thersites' criticism of Agamemnon is the same as Achilles'. He is what Achilles would be seen as, and treated as, in real life, were he not Achilles. "ἐπεὶ οὐδὲ μὲν οὐδὲ ἔοικε δῆμον ἐόντα παρὲξ ἀγορευέμεν" (Il 12.213)

2.278 Odysseus and Nestor, 2 speeches

Odysseus' message is "stay!". This is the heart of the Homeric political argument. In the real world of Ionia this means: do not provoke the people inland, the inhabitants of the large floodplains, into attack so fierce that the Ionians would have to flee. see here. The Cretan story of Odysseus in "Egypt" comes to mind, see Od 14.257-. The Ionians, especially those of Smyrna and Milete, were threatened in Homer's day and this threat never subsided. Smyrna was actually destroyed by the Lydians in late 7th c.
Nestor's message as always is "live up to your boast! attack!".

2.284 9 years fighting without result

"ἐνιαυτός": a year. But it can really mean any period or cycle. I propose the poet really means "generation", that would fit more or less the period 1000BC - 750BC or 9 generations, the period of the Ionian migration.

2.331 the people applaud him

331 "ἀλλ' ἄγε μίμνετε πάντες", stay. Compare the scene in Od. 4.284 where O. restrains the Argives from emerging from the wooden horse when Helen tempts them

2.336 Nestor's speech: "attack!"

Here we see Nestor in his role as Agamemnon's chief whip.

2.354 not leave before we punish them for Helen

"τίσασθαι δ' Ἑλένης ὁρμήματά τε στοναχάς τε", lit. "to punish (them) for the struggles and groans of Helen". But the majority translates it "...because of Helen. The first one says that Helen was struggling and groaning, because she was abducted and raped. The second one has the Achaian warriors struggling and groaning, trying to get Helen back. This is in my opinion a less plausible interpretation but it has the advantage that it leaves open the possibility that Helen followed Paris voluntarily. This is in agreement with the most prominent view of Helen in the Iliad and Odyssey. This line occurs only in two places: here in 2.356 spoken by Nestor and in 2.590 it is what Menelaos has in mind. Of course Menelaos has to believe she was abducted. As for Nestor: he is the voice of heroism, he, too, must say that Helen was abducted and raped. If she was not, the whole revenge crusade does not make much sense, and certainly not his little speech here.
The poet is concerned to deny the abduction-version of the story. This leaves Helen herself open to terrible blame, so he makes an effort to shift it from her to the gods and the men (see here. Only Paris is not defended, that guy who "travels across the sea to grab women".

2.402 Prayer to Zeus: denied

The poet confirms here, together with the Deadly Dream episode, that Zeus will not allow them to take Troy "now". In the real world, especially with a war going on, no one can publicly deny that Troy will fall "one day" or that "Zeus is against us".

2.402 Aga. sacrifices an ox, inviting the councilmembers

Here we find the complete membership (except Achilles) of Agamemnon's council, see here.

2.455 catalogue of ships and men

This long catalogue does not really fit within the chimaera-model. It does fit in with (my view of) one of the intentions of the poet: to create a poem that will contribute to a cultural unification of the whole Greek-speaking world.
My theory is that the Achaian catalogue is an adaptation of something that was part of the education of high-ranking members of the top aristocracy (the great houses). An oral map of Greece. It would make sense for them to know and to teach to their sons all or most of the regions in Hellas, the names of their leading families and an estimate of their strength. Also, if this was something learned through many generations, it would explain older, even Mycenaean remnants in the data. Updating it would always lag behind the real situation. All this is another reason for me to think the poet a member of a high aristocratic family.
The fact that this section does not fit well within the ring structure, makes me suspect that it was added as an afterthought, perhaps when the Iliad was written down. The same goes for Patrocles' funeral games.

2.550 with Menestheus.

If indeed the Ionian migration was led and organised from Athens (see here), then calling Menestheus the "greatest marshaller of armies" makes sense. He is only second to Nestor, the very voice of heroism.

3.15 Diomedes

Here we have the fire-breathing head of the chimaera. Diomedes will learn not only how to be a brave fighter but also, just as important, to talk heroically. No wonder he is Nestor's favourite (Il 9.52-). His aristeia is surrounded by two "truce and duel" themes which really would make sense only in the beginning of the war. So this theme is associated with "yesterday" or "what was", although the aristeia itself is not really bound to any time frame. It should be noted that there is no trace of the "plan of Zeus" in here.
The tone of the Diomedes part is somewhat lighthearted and ironical but the issues it sets up are very real and important.

3.15 A Truce and a Duel 1: Menelaos - Paris

Both "Truce and Duel" themes discuss and undermine the Trojan war-myth from the inside. First a duel between the two husbands of Helen. This of course should have happened right at the beginning of the war. It is the best option - but only if Helen went with Paris voluntarily. If she was abducted (surely the original myth), that would be quite another case. Then, since no Paris can be found on the battlefield, a duel between both side's champions without divine intervention.

3.15 Paris on the battlefield

Beautiful Paris is a bit of a shirker - something Achilles would be called if he were not Achilles.

3.38 Paris, you pretty boy

In Homer, Aphrodite's bribe, "the most beautiful woman in the world", is given to him by the goddess making him extremely attractive to women. Helen falls in love with him and follows him to Troy.

3.64 do not blame me for the gods' gifts

3.66 is here translated "none can have them for the asking" but this is not true in the Homeric world (see e.g. Diomedes). The more obvious translation is "one would not willingly choose them" (Kirk, Comm. ad loc.). Paris did choose them of course.

3.121 Iris goes to Helen

Laodikē is also the name of one of Agamemnon's daughters (9.145, see there) The name is surely significant. From laos: "the men", i.e the army or the population + dikē: justice. So: popular justice, "whoever wins has justice on his side". This in opposition to divine or Zeus' justice, which is not so simple a concept.

3.150 they are great talkers

They are like cicadas because of their unceasing chirping. Oukalegôn ("Doesn't care") is a rather remarkable significant name, or a joke.

3.161 Priam: "I do not blame you, I blame the gods"

see here about Helen, here about the myth.

3.191 That man who looks like a ram among his sheep

Note the position of a ram: he is a leader among sheep, but he is not the shepherd. Ref. also the cyclops episode in Od 9.432-

3.221 but in speech he is the best

3.222: words like snow. You can also have snow like words: 12.278- Zeus is snowing, telling the people of his wrath

3.340 Paris not on the battlefield but in the bedroom

The phenomenon "Paris", the pretty good-for-nothing who is preferred by the girls over "real" heroes, is not to be found on the battlefield - it is useless to seek revenge through war. The bedroom is where he is to be found. If you seek revenge on him, best leave it to Helen.

3.374 Aphrodite helps Paris

This is one of the places where a god does something very literal (breaking the strap) and it is not easy to reconcile this to my theory that the gods are "the forces that we obey". More on this here

3.413 Aphrodite is angry with Helen

Helen's fear is very understandable: love can turn into hate and she could find herself alone in a hostile town without protection.

3.390 tells Helen to go to Paris

392: "radiant with beauty". She goes to Paris because of his beauty.

4.1 Gods and men choose war

the Pandaros/Menelaos-Paris situation here is ruled by "the gods". Not that that makes it any less human. The decision to go to war after the 2nd duel is made only by humans. Both sides actually make rather stupid decisions there.

4.1 Zeus proposes peace but accepts war

This is one of the places where Zeus yields to the two main goddesses (see 4.68-)

4.37 You can have it. But if I want a city of yours, you must let me

Here we have the "Zeus of the balance": a bit for you, a bit for me.

4.50: Pandaros breaks the oath

This scene appears to put the blame on the Trojans, but Homer does set some flags here: the chain of command, normally starting with Zeus, is here: Hera->Zeus->Athena->Pandaros. Zeus proposed peace in the previous theme. Why does he accede to this?
There is a likeness to the Menelaos-Helen-Paris situation, in the charter myth. Menelaos is "wounded" by Paris' and Helen's betrayal, the war is waged to heal him. But is a small insult worth a great mutual killing? I refer to the "nikē heteralkēs" theme and the Niobe episode in 24.607-

4.68 Zeus sends Athena

"οὐδ' ἀπίθησε πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε": "the father of gods and men did not disobey", a rather remarkable scene. This will come back later in the raising of Achilles (see Il 18.356-). It shows that Zeus is not a completely authoritarian king of the gods like Kronos. In accordance with the laws of Justice, he does not "take it all" (μηδὲν ἄγαν).

4.68 Zeus obeys, sends Athena down

"Start the war again; make sure the blame falls on the Trojans": it is the oldest trick in the book. Zeus says it, because we can usually persuade ourselves that, since we are fighting a just war, everything we do is necessarily just.

4.86 Athena persuades Pandaros to break the oath

xxx

4.141 coloring his thighs, like a Carian woman stains ivory.

Hidden but harsh and ironical: Menelaos' thighs are stained red, "like the ivory of a Carian or Maeonian woman..". Blood, ivory, woman: need I say more? It is a picture of the deflowering of a virgin. This is why Homer is angry at his countrymen: they capture Carian or Maeonian women to be an "ornament" witnessing their glory (and for some other reasons as well I suppose). This is the Chryseis - Briseis - Andromache theme. Small wonder later Greeks did not like to discuss this, only Herodotus seems to make a veiled reference to it (Hdt 1.146). And possibly Plato ( Rep. 382C ).

4.188 Machaon heals Menelaos

Machaon: warrior, the healer. Menelaos is "wounded", real (here) or metaphorically (by Paris and Helen), and war is started or resumed to do the healing. Later (11.504-) Dr. War will get wounded himself. Then they are really in trouble. Achilles obviously is the archetypical "warrior, the healer".

4.217 wipes the blood, gives a drug

This Machaon learned from his teacher Cheiron, just as Achilles did. Usually, in Greek myth and literature, this name is used unironically as one of the original teachers of medicine. He is supposed to be the "most just of the Centaurs". But here the word "χειροδίκης" comes to mind, LSJ: "one who asserts his right by hand, uses the right of might". So, ironically: the law of the jungle is the best they had of Justice.

4.220 Diomedes' aristeia or "How to be a Hero and Live"

Here we have the head of the chimaera in a curious aristeia which seems to be mostly about the relationship between men and gods. It will be made clear that D. is an ironical hero. He is not being made fun of though, most of the ironies are true and important points. It's just that...things are not that simple in reality.

4.220 Intro: Agamemnon's epipolesis

Untypically, this introduction seems to be balanced by the 6.37 theme.
The epipolesis (Agamemnon goes the rounds): probably it is meant to be humorous. Agamemnon is encouraging those who do not need it, praising or criticising those who do not deserve it, reminding Nestor that he is too old and getting rebuffed by those who need criticism. Diomedes anyway is getting unfairly dissed in public by his commander. He does not talk back though.

4.327 to Menestheus and Odysseus

The Athenians are "Raisers of the war-cry". Good at the war-cry, reluctant to go and fight. That is an implied criticism of the Athenians. See also Il 2.550-, where Menestheus is called the greatest marshaller of armies (except Nestor: the "voice of heroism" is of course the most alluring call to battle). In the tradition about the Ionian migration, the men came east through Athens. Homer is saying that Athens is good at sending men to wage a war, but reluctant to help when needed.

4.365 to Diomedes

One sure way to get under Diomedes' skin is to compare him to his father

4.457 War, with the gods taking part

The aristeia looks like an analysis of the role of gods on the battlefield. When the gods take part, there appears to be a to and fro of battle, with both sides winning individual duels. No doubt this is Homeric "realism" because after all, both parties have gods on their side. When the gods retreat, all the killings are by Achaians. This is a fantasy. It says: we, as men, are by far the better fighters. They are only women without breasts. The only reason we haven't won yet, is that gods are thwarting our efforts. See also 20.41.

5.1 Diomedes and Athena 1: without Ares

When Ares is absent, the Achaians win everything. Of course they do. In 5.445- we see how it goes when Ares is present. But the poet is telling his real-life audience that the God of War is against them in their attempt to conquer "Troy". This means at least that outright war is not the way, something else - trickery - will have to come into it.

5.1 Diomedes stands out, gets the horses

Diomedes wins all, easily, and gets a first pair of horses balancing his capture of Aeneas' famous horses at 5.166- Capturing enemy horses: the highest accolade, even better than winning armour, cp. Nestor's 50 pairs of horses he wins in his second battle (11.747-).

5.85 Diomedes wounded, asks Athena's help and gets it

This is what you ought to do when wounded or otherwise in trouble: pray to the gods. Considering what follows, this means here: rely on yourself, on untapped resources within you, even in untested situations. Agamemnon and the other "heroes at the back" should have done this in "four woundings" (Il 11.84-).
If you do this, you will be ok if you are clever enough to "know yourself" and distinguish gods from men. There is the crux and the problem that makes Diomedes an ironical hero. It is again explained in Nestor's advice to his son Antilochos, Il 23.306-.

5.127 distinguish gods from men, don't fight gods except Aphrodite

"γνῶθι σεαυτόν": know thyself - know what is moving you. This is what Diomedes is learning here.

5.330 Diomedes fights the gods

Our hero finding his limits here. Two extraordinary scenes that go to the heart of what the Iliad is about.

5.330 Diomedes vs. Aphrodite who is protecting Aeneas

Diomedes vs. the goddess of love: this goes directly to the Chryseis-Briseis-Helen theme. It says that sexual desire has no place in the war. If you go capturing girls for pleasure and a war ensues because of that, what you are doing is giving the reins of Ares' chariot in the hands of the goddess of desire. So, "Retreat, daughter of Zeus, from war and battle-strife"

5.352 Ares gives Aphrodite his horses and chariot

Ares did not see at all what happened (5.356). Athena and Hera did (5.418). Is Homer making a point here?
Ares gives the wounded Aphrodite his chariot & horses:
to have the ch & h is to be in command. Does he mean that the (real-life) Greeks are letting lust (Aphrodite) decide about war (by abducting women)? That would fit in with what Diomedes and Zeus say ("you don't belong on the battlefield").

5.370 Dione: mortals who fight gods

"Dione" appears to be a female form of the name "Zeus". She makes a rare appearance here as the mother of Aphrodite. Zeus, the god of Justice, of giving others their share, is a "rule" god. Justice is normally not a desire, see Plato's Republic. Dione would be a "desire" goddess, a desiring to share. Not a bad image of Love.

5.432 Diomedes vs. Apollo

First of three enactments of "the hero versus Apollo". Apollo being the god of prophecy and poetry, the reference is clear: the poet is warning his contemporaries: "do not go too far; defend your city with all your fierceness but do not go out and try to take Troy. For now, Zeus will not let you". Patrocles does go too far and pays for it, Achilles in ironical reversal does attack a fourth time but gets away with it. However, he does not storm the gates of Troy.

5.445 Diomedes and Athena 2: with Ares

Of course if Athena herself helps you, you can do the impossible, such as defeating Ares. This god is portrayed in the Iliad as a young brainless hothead. This hides the obvious fact that he is a very fearsome and powerful god especially for a warrior people like the Greeks. And he is against them! Consequently there is a warning woven into this theme: Hera raises her voice like 50 men; a wounded Ares gives a roar like 10.000 men. The mechanism here is "Nikē Heteralkēs" - a victory that fuels the fighting spirit of the other side. A small victory, an ambush with only 50 men, may call out a 10.000 strong army. The Smyrneans really needed their wall...

5.733 Athena puts on her father's tunic

Is the rest of the armour also Zeus' armour? If so, Athena, dressed as Zeus, will be going after Ares. Zeus does not mention it when she talks to him but clearly endorses this.

5.743 puts on the helmet, grabs her enormous spear

In the Ancient Greek view, women cannot really be warriors (except the Amazons). Women were thought to lack the "do or die" mentality that men were supposed to have. So a woman in arms is someone who wants to do but not die. This fits in well with the kind of advice that Diomedes gets from Athena. It does not produce the greatest of heroes though: those are the ones, men or women, who give heir lives for us.

5.757 Hera to Zeus: will you not be angry if we chase Ares out of battle?

Athena and Diomedes' chasing Ares out of the battle is parallel to his chasing away Aphrodite. Ares loves war and battle; apparently Homer does not think that is an appropriate attitude. You fight because you have no choice, like Patrocles or Achilles. You do not go to war because you love it.

5.784 Hera raises her voice like Stentor, like 50 men

Fifty men is the typical number for a lochos, a raid (as depicted on the shield of Achilles). In 5.859 the answer comes: Ares shouts like 10.000 men. Here it is a wounded Ares. Wounded like Achilles was "wounded", presumably by the pinprick of a raid (capturing cattle and women). Another example of a "victory that gives fighting-spirit to the other side". It seems like a warning by the poet: small-size raids can cause large-size armies to descend upon your town. Diomedes' vanquishing Ares should be seen as ironical, like Achilles' aristeia.

5.793 Diomedes and Athena fight and wound Ares

This is ironical of course: a man cannot defeat the god of war. Diomedes is crossing the line again but thanks to the unfailing divine assistance he gets away with it.

5.888 Zeus: I hate you the most, always you love war and fighting

891:Note that Zeus is reproaching Ares with the same words Agamemnon uses against Achilles.

6.61 Menelaos obeys him, kills Adrastos

6.62: "αἴσιμα παρειπών": "convincing him that this is proper". This must be a secondary focalization, it tells us what Agamemnon's opinion is as he convinces Menelaos, not the narrator's (Taplin).

6.73 A Truce and a Duel 2: Hector - Aias

The second best option in a heroic society for the solution of a conflict: a duel between the champions of both sides. But first some exercises in irony and an introduction to Hector, the real hero.
Compare this theme to the corresponding Truce and Duel I. There the myth is discussed with respect to the Menelaos-Paris situation. Within this context, the Trojans are of course to blame while the gods are shown to be responsible for the continuation of the war. Not that that diminishes human responsibility. In Truce and Duel 2, the duel is more about "who is best" and the blame for the war is put squarely on the people. Both parties are shown making their decision. At this point, the war could have been stopped. But the Trojans make an offer they know the Achaians will not accept, the Achaians do not even care about offers, nor even about Helen (Il 7.400-). Both sides think they are going to win. Some realistic politics here...

6.73 Helenos has a solution

Your army is in deep trouble. You are the leader and its strongest hero. So, your brother comes and tells you: "I know a solution. Go tell everyone to stand firm, then you yourself go back to the city to tell the women to make a sacrifice. We will hold the line meanwhile". Now there is welcome advice for you!

6.86 go to town, tell the women to sacrifice

Sacrifice your most beautiful robe to Athena? To Aphrodite, yes, but war goddess Athena is a maiden who always wears armour and is never pictured wearing a dress. Irony? It is hard to fathom but this fits in with the ironical tone of this whole section.

6.119 Diomedes and Glaucos: friendship

Having a golden armour is a surefire way of getting recognized as a superhero. See Achilles or Patrocles and Hector wearing his armour (but see also Il 2.867-). No doubt it has something to do with the way people of Homer's time imagined their heroes. As the cases of Patrocles and Hector show, it is not easy to win that glory. Except, naturally, for Diomedes: he gets it by an exchange of armour on the battlefield with a guest-friend of the family. Note especially the poet's comment at 6.234-.

6.122 Diomedes' challenge

"Watch out for me! But if you're a god, don't let me stop you". Did people talk like that on the battlefield? Another sign that we are in the middle of some light-hearted scenes, not to be taken too seriously.

6.152 Story of Bellerophon

Curiously, Homer leaves out the most well-known elements of the Bellerophon story: the flying horse Pegasus and B.'s doomed attempt to storm Olympus. This is another exile story and I like the image of the Chimaera, but apart from that, the relevance of the Bellerophon story to the Iliad or its background is not clear to me.

6.234 poet's comment

Here we have a wonderful double entendre: the improbability of Diomedes earning his golden armour without having to work or suffer for it. The view of this hero is still the same in the Odyssey, where he and Nestor sail home without a hitch but all the others have endless trouble (Od 3.167-). Next to that, it is a characterization of the Iliad in two words: "ἑκατόμβοι' ἐννεαβοίων", literally "worth a hundred oxen, for nine". It also sounds like "a hecatomb for nine oxen" which is exactly what the Iliad is. The number nine is explained here.

6.237 Hector in Troy

An in-depth view of Hector and the people close to him. Very nice example of character building by showing us the people's actions without the narrator getting in the way, worthy of a Jane Austen. Hector's mother, offering him wine, Paris handling his armour and weapons in the bedroom, also Helen, dissatisfied with the husband she has, offering Hector Paris' seat. And most poignant of all, the picture of his wife Andromache, see here.

6.332 Paris defends himself

Again the likenesses between Paris and Achilles: he is called a shirker, and his defense is that he wants to "give himself up to grief"(336). It is unclear where this grief is supposed to come from.

6.349 I should have a better husband

Helen being Helen: not quite satisfied with the husband she has.

6.405 Andromache

The poet builds up the pathos very strongly around Andromache and her little son. All this strengthens one of the primary aims of the Iliad: show them the other side is just like you. In the Odyssey, Odysseus weeps like Andromache would have wept (Od 8.523-)

6.405 to Hector: your menos will kill you

She is right about him of course, just like the lion in 12.47, "ἀγηνορίη δέ μιν ἔκτα" his machismo will cause the shame (for losing or being a coward) that will kill him. (see 6.440-)

6.433 place the army at its weak point

The woman is right of course. But he, being a man, probably had no choice in that world. They feared "what people will say" even more than death.

6.471 but he takes off the helmet

This fits in with Homer's picture of Ancient Greeks in general (e.g. Achilles): in normal times they are friendly, hospitable and generous. But when they "have their helmet on", they are prone to becoming a macho fool.

6.486 I will not die before my time

This is the heroic view of Fate, prevalent in all heroic societies. Homer, in his picture of Achilles, Patrocles, Hector and many others, denies this: you choose your fate and, making the wrong choice, you may die unnecessarily.
I once heard of a young boy in one of the present day wars, who would happily walk in front of the soldiers, through a minefield. He said "Only when Allah wills it shall I be killed". What a gift for military leaders to have people with such an attitude!

6.506 beautiful like a stallion

Greek beauty:
"ἀγλαΐηφι πεποιθὼς": "persuaded by" or "confident in" his beauty. Paris chose, and now chooses again, Beauty, just as Achilles will do. See also Il 21.108-, Achilles to Lykaon: "do you not see how beautiful I am?"

6.520 Hector: you are brave, but don't be unwilling

Paris here acts like a "smaller version" of Achilles' refusal to fight. Their motivations (not fighting because of a woman) are not exactly the same but in a war, all reasons for not participating are the same, and wrong. But a man-to-man speech by a brother should solve the problem.

7.4 another solution: Aias - Hector

If the war cannot be stopped by having the two responsible parties fight it out, it could be done by a duel of their champions. It happens and - how could it be otherwise - the Achaians come off best. The attempt ultimately fails because the spectators of both sides are so anxious about their champion's survival that they stop the fight before it is decided. Note that during Paris' and Menelaos' duel there was no such anxiousness.

7.23 Apollo: why have you come

The butler translation is inexact here: "μάχης ἑτεραλκέα νίκην": a hard-to-translate phrase which means: "a victory igniting the the other side's will to fight". The Japanese victory at Pearl Harbor would be a good example of this. This is just what is going to happen in the end: Hector killing Patrocles is a victory of this kind, for it raises Achilles. See also Niobe.

7.313 The people choose war

As I will argue elsewhere, this whole theme is a short "Embassy and Assembly" part. Originally this may have been followed by 11.1 The Plan of Zeus.
Also it introduces the Achaian wall which plays such an important role later on. Given the fact that Smyrna had a remarkable city wall, the earliest known in the post-Mycenaean Greek world, this seems another piece of circumstantial evidence for locating the poet in that city.
Note that it is Nestor, the voice of heroism, who initializes the building of the wall. A city wall like Smyrna's is not just a defense, it is offensive, like building a military base in enemy territory. It says: "I can do raids on you all I like and you cannot touch me".

7.323 Nestor proposes a truce to bury the dead, build a wall

The building of the wall is another important clue that the Truce & Duel themes are telling us about the past. The Diomedes aristeia itself seems quite independent of time.

7.336 build a barrow, a wall with a gate, and a trench

The detail of the trench does make it sound realistic (except the "building it in one day" part). War historians tell me there always were trenches to make it difficult to approach a wall. I wonder if there are archaeological traces of a trench outside the wall in old Smyrna.

7.398 Diomedes: "don't accept, the Trojans are doomed"

A first sign that Diomedes is also learning to talk heroically.

7.446 Poseidon is not pleased

Why is the anti-Trojan Poseidon not pleased? see also 12.1-

8.1 Embassy & Assembly 2: the embassy to Achilles

This Embassy & Assembly part is obviously different from the other three. It contains a day of battle and the infamous night raid which is declared to be an interpolation by most scholars. See here why I think it is Homeric; and if not, it is by someone who understood Homeric principles of composition very well.

8.1 Failure by Day

This theme is a preparation for the Embassy to Achilles by showing an Achaian defeat which gets them into deep trouble.

8.18 "you will not pull me down to earth"

This is an important scene for it describes one of the basic principles of the Olympic religion: Zeus does not walk the earth. Just like the God of the Hebrew bible, the closest he comes to earth is the top of a mountain. Zeus is "king" of the gods, but there are no divine kings (anymore) in the Greek world: no Kronos. Poseidon, however, does not think he is bound by this rule.
The fact that his subordinate gods and goddesses do strive to pull him down to earth, can be interpreted in various ways, both personal and political. See here.

8.28 Athena: we will give advice only

This delightful little dialogue demonstrates another of the principles of the Olympic religion: Zeus is not a dictator, like Kronos. He boasts of being the strongest but in practice he often gives in to the desires of the other gods.

8.41 Zeus mounts his chariot, flies between heaven and earth

Zeus never comes down to earth. Poseidon, his brother, does.

8.47 Takes his seat on mt. Ida

A telling difference: Zeus does not bind his horses, he lets them roam free. Poseidon does not (Il 13.32-). He does feed them, though, on ambrosia. Apparently they are immortal horses. Why Zeus' horses should be hidden in mist is unclear to me. Is it because one of them is an anonymous wandering bard?

8.78 Diomedes and Nestor

A striking parallel to the "Hera and Athena attack" theme at 8.350-. It looks a bit like an enlarged "double determination" feature although in the details of the action there is no exact agreement between the human and the divine. But there is the repeated sequence attack - Zeus drives them back - anti-Achaian boast.
Diomedes' learning curve is further developed in books 8 and 10. He is a brave young man but his survival skill needs to be honed. Between Nestor and Odysseus he learns how to be a hero and live.

8.78 Diomedes and Nestor attack

Diomedes is not afraid of anything, not even Zeus, except what someone may say about him. But see 167-.

8.91 Odysseus does not hear

Odysseus is not a typical hero: he is a survivor but one who does deliver Troy to them).

8.167 Dio. hesitates but Zeus thunders again

Diomedes finding his limits again, this time with Zeus as the warning agent. Zeus needs to thunder only three times before Diomedes gives up (normally the fourth time is disastrous).
8.171: see here. The poet is slowly working his way up to the return of Achilles.

8.184 spurs on his horses

191 horses are given wine? Scholarly opinions are sceptical of this, but I think "horses" is a metaphorical substitute for "the men". Homer's humour again, feeding the men before feeding their commander.

8.191 strip their divine armour

This information about the two heroes' armour comes out of nowhere and we never hear of it again. Rhapsodic influence is suspected (Kirk).

8.208 Poseidon: "Zeus is far stronger"

Poseidon has his own agenda but he never opposes Zeus openly.

8.212 Counterattack 1

A failed counterattack, just like the one at 14.361- and Patrocles' aristeia (16.124-). Also, let us not forget, Hector's attempt to drive the Achaians away. The only successful counterattack is the one by Achilles and it succeeds only because he does not go too far (this time).

8.227 Shame on you, Argives

"Mixing bowls filled with wine..."(8.232), "stand up against 100 or 200 Trojans..."(8.233): heroism and alcohol appear to be intimately connected. Not just here: see e.g. Nestor's cup (Il 11.632-), an assembly late in the afternoon (Od 3.137-9), also the story of Charybdis (Od 12.235-)

8.245 Zeus gives a sign

Again one of those pictures representing the basic idea of the Iliad: an eagle, the bird of Zeus, drops a young fawn at his own altar: Zeus delivers himself a sacrifice. This is the "Plan of Zeus" (or at least the Patrocles-part of it) in a nutshell.

8.477 I don't care what you think

"οὐ σέο κύντερον ἄλλο" - no one is more dog-like than you (Zeus to Hera). Does this refer to her being "dog-eyed" κυνώπης, "shameless" (acc. to LSJ)? Helen calls herself that, but she is not at all shameless the way Homer paints her.

8.523 "I pray we may drive them away"

Here we have a good example of the important verb "εὔχομαι" (526): boast, pray, wish, promise. The basic meaning of the verb seems to me to be "ask the gods for something". Even to boast is implicitly asking a god for a victory even if it is not formulated as a request.

8.517 "let the youths and the old men defend our walls"

This paragraph descibes exactly the strategic problem that the Ionians from Homer's time must have had: they could conceivably have the men from all 12 Ionian cities team up in a large army, and then maybe they could have beaten the Lydians, the "children of the Hermos". Unfortunately that would have left their home cities undefended (exact for the young and the old) against attack by the other army, the Carians, the "children of the Meandros". Even if the above-mentioned situation was unlikely, a city like Smyrna would still have the same problem about sending out all of its army.
"μὴ λόχος εἰσέλθῃσι πόλιν λαῶν ἀπεόντων": this sentence must have had special meaning for anyone in Smyrna. (Hdt.1.148)

9.1 council: Agamemnon wants to go home

Now he means it! (see Il 2.100-) Again, Agamemnon is shown to be a less than perfect leader. Diomedes has a little revenge and shows that he is a good pupil of Nestor: talk big.

9.29 Diomedes' answer

Diomedes has his little revenge about events in the epipolesis (Il 4.365-). Still, he is full of deference for his king and commander.

9.52 Nestor takes the lead, they have a meal

Nestor is full of praise for Diomedes who spoke in the manner Nestor typically would have spoken. Now the old man takes the lead again.

9.52 let me give Agamemnon some advice

9.63 "ἀφρήτωρ ἀθέμιστος ἀνέστιός ἐστιν ἐκεῖνος" (without clan, without law, without hearth is he who...) sounds like a description of an exile. And indeed, Aristotle quotes this (Politics 1253a) as the one who is, not by accident but by nature, without a community (ἄπολις). The man without a city who is worse or better than a human [...] like a beast or a god...who does he have in mind?.
9.64...who desires bitter war among the people. Achilles of course wishes his people to be slaughtered at the ships: Nestor could be talking about him. But Achilles is not exactly an exile and his home is still in Phthia. Why Nestor is saying this here is unclear to me. Could there be self-reflection of a cityless wandering bard, who left his home because he saw the "Trojan war" policy of his contemporaries as a coming disaster? But still, why say this here?

9.93 Agamemnon offers the gifts

Agamemnon's offer is enveloped in scenes of Nestor telling everybody what to do. This indicates that we are still in heroic mode: the gifts are not primarily given for Achilles' sake, because it would be just, they are only a way to get him to fight again.

9.114 the offer

Note that the offer contains: 1) much loot (->Athena) 2) kingship over 7 towns (->Hera) 3) a desirable wife (->Aphrodite). It is the Paris-judgement all over again, but Achilles could have it all, not just one(4). Homeric irony again.
It is quite a list that Agamemnon sums up. But, of course, Achilles will never take Troy and never come home - and he knows it (Il 9.410-). That reduces the value of Achilles to seven tripods, ten "talents" (think coin-size) of gold, twenty iron kettles, twelve horses which have already won their prizes and seven women plus Briseis, all captured by himself. This list really does not look as impressive anymore, but it is a recognition of his honour.

9.157 ...but he must submit to me

δμηθήτω: "he must submit to me"
Here is the crux of the whole operation, the part that Odysseus leaves out in his speech to Achilles (Il 9.229-). This will make him "someone who thinks one thing but says another" to Achilles, who is not at all deceived.

9.182 Achilles' meal

Achilles is probably like a typical Achaian: when his blood is not up, he is quite a hospitable guy.

9.212 Patrocles deals the bread, Achilles the meat

As always, the descriptions of meals and their preparations are full of metaphorical meaning. Here the difference is emphasized between Patrocles, a mere bread-eating mortal and Achilles the half-god. Or it is a class difference? The aristocracy eat meat, the common people bread or porridge (see also 18.558-). Both interpretations may actually be valid at the same time.

9.218 Patrocles is asked to make the offerings

Metaphor again: Achilles tells Patrocles to make the offering. Later he will also ask his friend to "become a light to the Achaians". Which he does.

9.225 comments on the "equal meal"

The start of Odysseus' speech appears to fall outside the ring-structure of 229-306. This is unusual.

9.229 Odysseus offers the gifts

See also 9.157. Note the careful low-level ringstructure of the speech and the clever rhetoric. Everything Odysseus says is true (Odysseus is, as it were, speaking with the voice of Athena), except the bit about Peleus' words (252) is probably rather tongue-in-cheek (see Il 11.783-). But he leaves out the final words of Agamemnon though: "δμηθήτω", let him submit. This gives Achilles a handle for his subsequent refusal.

9.283 one of Agamemnon's daughters

Funny kind of riddle. Chrysothemis "golden order" = Hera, Laodike "people (or army)'s justice = Athena, Iphianassa "rules by force" = Aphrodite.

9.307 Achilles refuses

There is an eternal question: was Achilles right or wrong to refuse the offer? Here in book 9, Homer leads us to believe he is right. Later, the death of Patrocles clearly shows him it was wrong. In a modern polis, like Sparta for instance, there is no honorable way a citizen could refuse to join the fight. But let us leave the judgement aside and ask the more important question: why did he refuse?
Achilles tells us it is because he hates liars in general and Agamemnon in particular and that no amount of treasure or women is worth dying for. This last point is, in my opinion, the real choice. Achilles will never admit that of course, possibly not even to himself, hiding behind his (real) anger with Agamemnon. But he is still obeying Athena, who says: be a winner and survive. Achilles is still "φιλόζωος", loving life, and he questions the honour of war. But he forgets about shame.

9.321 like a bird feeding her young and starving herself

Here is the other part of the scene in Aulis (Il 2.308-) where Achilles compares himself to a mother-bird feeding her young. It is the Aias-part of Achilles speaking: "I do all the work and get nothing for it, except getting killed".

9.337 why do we fight, if not for Helen?

This, I maintain, is one of Homer's chief points about the Helen myth: if we are going to Troy because of Helen, how come we are doing the same thing to Trojan women? This is a miasma and here is one root of the Wrath of Apollo.

9.346 Hector will beat you, but I will sail home

For the real Ionians, clearly, "sailing home" was always an absurd option. There was no possibility for them to go back to the mainland. Their only option was "stay" (Il 2.278-)
"Phthia" (φθίη) may or may not be the traditional homeland of Achilles, but it surely is no accident that in Homer it is associated with decay, perish, wasting away. Cp. the story of Eukhenor, Il. 13.663-, who sailed to Troy only because his alternative was to stay at home, wasting away from a terrible disease: shame.

9.496 conquer your pride

Scenes of old men preaching to Achilles to restrain his anger, those by Priam and Phoenix,feel like they may have been inserted later by the poet, possibly when the poem was being written down. I venture this because Homer never explains himself - he wants the story to do that and he trusts us to recognize this. He never preaches except here and by the words of Priam in book 24. An old man trying to make sure we get his meaning?

9.524 Meleager's anger

Homer reworks the story to make it fit the Iliadic situation: Meleager (Achilles) quarrels with his mother (Agamemnon) and refuses to fight until his wife (Patrocles) convinces him otherwise. Phoenix is, however, glaringly silent about the most noteworthy feature of the Meleager-story: the firebrand that represents his (Meleager's) life, which is thrown on the fire by his mother, killing him - reminding us of Patrocles' (= Achilles') funeral pyre and also of a hard fact: the hero and his proxy are a sacrifice.

9.606 Achilles: "Zeus' honour is enough for me"

Here Achilles gives proof of serious error, the kind that might get you scapegoated in some circumstances. His society is based on honour that comes from fellow-citizens. To say that Zeus' honour is enough for you is to place yourself outside society. It shows that you cross a line dividing the human and the divine. This is probably to be expected of a "hemitheos", a half-god, but the "Delphic" movement of which Homer is a part is concerned to unblur this dividing line.

9.622 Aias' laconic comments

Short and to the point, Aias' appeal is nearly irresistible among warriors. But Achilles can still hide behind his anger.

9.649 I will not fight before Hector reaches my hut

This sounds like a sarcastic comment you might make to someone refusing to join the army: "do you think they will stop when they reach your house"? It just flags the fact that from the community's point of view, Achilles is completely wrong.

9.663 Achilles and Patrocles sleep with women they had carried off

Well, really!

10.1 Success by Night

The Doloneia: does it belong in the Iliad? It is harsh, killing defenseless people is not how we heroes like to see ourselves. But I have yet to hear of a general who would pass up such an opportunity. It has been accused of Odyssean language and clearly it is "untypical". It has much more action-oriented narrative than the typical formality of battle scenes. All this may just have to do with the subject matter. If it is a later addition in the way explained here, the question must be "why this?".
Reading it back into the political situation in Smyrna in Homer's time, he seems to be saying that this way, ambushes and night raids, is the only way they can have successes and keep up morale. But it will not win them the war, on the contrary, they will win themselves a "victory that raises the fighting spirit of the other side", "μάχης ἑτεραλκέα νίκην" or revenge-provoking attack. See also the ambush scene on the Shield, Il 18.509-.

10.194 Nestor asks for a volunteer

Again the typical roles of the heroes: Nestor, the voice of heroism, asks them to go; Diomedes, the ambitious too-good-to-be-true hero who listens well to this voice; he knows well whom to choose as his companion though: Odysseus the reluctant participant who gets them safely there and back.

10.299 Dolon volunteering

Another example of Homer's habit of creating an ironical opposite to the protagonists, cf. Achilles and Thersites, Agamemnon and Menelaos, the Phaeacians and the Laestrygonians, Odysseus and Iros and, of course, Achilles and Patrocles. The second one seems designed to bring us back to the real world: "this is what will happen if you are fool enough to do this".

10.365 Diomedes is worried someone else may catch Dolon

A good example of how the actions of the gods are subjective. It is Diomedes who worries about coming second and it is "his" Athena who gives him extra strength.

10.498 Odysseus leads the horses away

Note that Odysseus leads the horses with his bow!

II: 11.1 The Plan of Zeus

The middle part tells us the harsh reality of war. The name comes from Il 2.3-4 where Zeus is pondering how to honour Achilles and decides to have many Achaians slaughtered. This is the first part of a Plan whose full meaning only becomes clear in book 24, with Priam's embassy to Achilles.
This theme forms the transition between the immortality and the mortality of the hero. The stories of Idomeneus, Patrocles, Menelaos and Hector illustrate this learning curve. The day starts with the confident marching out of the Achaians, and it ends with Menelaos desperately defending the body of his comrade and Antilochos running for help to Achilles. In the middle, an irreverent story about Hera trying to get her way by seducing Zeus. In the middle of that, the counterattack: a short preview of Patrocles' aristeia surrounded by warning flags: this cannot happen, Zeus does not sleep, you cannot win "against fate". Their manipulation of Patrocles (the Achilles) is a trick (metis) and Homer makes it quite clear. See here.

11.1 Agamemnon's Aristeia

It should be noted how the balancing themes in this middle section show a high-low contrast: Agamemnon vs. Menelaos, Idomeneus and Poseidon vs. Patrocles and Apollo. By the time "Hector resumes his attack", the high-born and the clever are off the battlefield(5). They have a good excuse naturally but I wonder if it is quite good enough in a heroic warrior culture. The result is anyhow that the therapontes and the young men are left to do the work (Patrocles, Menelaos, Antilochos, Meriones(6)). The word "sacrifice" comes to mind. Even the name Meriones reminds of the thighbones of an ox which are wrapped in fat to make a sacrifice to Zeus.

11.1 Arming scene - Zeus sends Eris

Expected divine presence, in a traditional aristeia, would probably be Athena or Ares. But here, Zeus sends Eris (Discord or Strife). There must be a characterization of Agamemnon's actions in this. If we read book 11 as following book 7 (see here), then it is clearer: It is Agamemnon who is unnecessarily continuing the war. The bloody portents hark back to the "Plan of Zeus" (Il 2.1-)

11.84 Agamemnon fights and is wounded

There are no real cowards in the Homeric battles. Even the ones he criticizes - Agamemnon, Odysseus, Paris etc. - are still shown to be brave fighters. Just not enough.

11.264 Agamemnon retires

This is like a captain being the first to leave his sinking ship. There is a second devastating criticism - and I am surprised none of the commentators mentioned this before: he fights on until the pain becomes like that of a woman in childbirth. Now everyone knows this is no sinecure but... the alfa male Agamemnon cannot go through what every woman has to go through?

11.310 the leaders are wounded

First a short sequence to show that they really are brave men. Then, they get "conveniently" wounded. Diomedes first, to show he is a quick learner (in 11.318 he also shows that he has learned to read Zeus' will). Getting a little wounded is a good thing: it shows you were there, taking part, and then gives you a good excuse not to be. After all it is not your own fault, is it? Uncoincidentally this happens just as the battle is turning around and things are getting hot. Compare the attitude of Diomedes in his own aristeia, in Il 5.793-

11.504 Paris wounds Machaon and Eurypylos

For Machaon or "Dr. War" see Il 4.188-. The descendants of Neleus may have called their cities or their whole area in Ionia "Pylos" ("sandy Pylos"). Eurypylos is a known hero, though as a personal name it is a curious one. Maybe he is used here as a personification of the city of Smyrna.

11.599 Achilles sees and calls Patrocles

Achilles calls and Patrocles comes out: this is where his trouble starts. Ref. the Siren's song (Od 12.184-). They sing: "we know what will happen" - and it sounds beautiful so it must be good. But...

11.618 Patrocles visits Nestor

Nestor's cup, "no one could lift it but he": it means he had so much practice, he could drink anyone under the table. There is a definite connection between heroism and alcohol. Ref. also Il 8.227

11.668 Nestor's tale

Note the sequence: cattle raid - attack by an enemy army. Another example of a revenge-provoking victory. The "being forbidden to fight" is reminiscent of Patrocles' current position.

11.762 When Nestor visited Achilles and Patrocles

Fighting in Achilles' armour: "you must be the Achilles now". Nestor knows pretty well that it will get P. killed, but it will give the Achaians some respite and, crucially, his death will "raise the fighting spirit" of the army: the spirit of Achilles.

11.794 But if the gods told him something, let him send you

Of course Achilles remembers his mother's prophecies. This must be the secret reason he is not returning to battle.

11.804 Patrocles sees Eurypylos, helps him

Patrocles has a double motivation for wanting to join the battle: the heroic tales of fame and glory from Nestor and the pity he feels for his wounded comrades. Patrocles is a healer, like Achilles, he is to cure the town from the hysteria and near madness that must have accompanied a real siege.

12.1 one day, the gods will obliterate the wall

This is a hard passage to interpret, especially if we think the Achaian wall refers to the city wall of Smyrna. But it does fit in with the ring-structure. Why is Poseidon so much against this wall? Could it be a reference to a real historical event? R.V. Nicholls in Old Smyrna: The Iron age Fortifications (The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 53/54 (1958/1959) decribes how Smyrna's wall was destroyed by an earthquake around 700 BC. See also Il 7.446-. About the demigods: see here

12.175 second attack: Hector refuses Polydamas' advice

Here, a clear example of Homer's technique to set at rest the hearts of a fiercely chauvinistic audience. In the middle of a great disaster for the Achaians, he tells them it will be alright in the end and they are really fighting bravely. Polydamas is right of course, seers always are in the Iliad, but Hector is also right: it is now or never, they are committed. No buts now.

12.200 They saw an eagle having to drop a snake

Achilles is the snake, just as it is in the sign in Aulis (Il 2.308-). Being "an Achilles" will be the death of them all, by reason of going too far: Achilles will kill them all (except Diomedes of course).

12.230 Hector is angry about this

We know that Polydamas will be vindicated, but right now Hector is right: he sees a chance and seizes it.

12.278 stones fly, thick as snow

Il 3.222: words like snow
Here: snow like words

13.1 Idomeneus and Poseidon

A god and a man get most of the focus here. Idomeneus is a high aristocrat, claiming Minos himself as his ancestor. Poseidon is the brother of Zeus, grandfather of Nestor, founding father of the Neleids who play an important role in Greek history. Both are therefore very high on the aristocracy scale. Patrocles is nobody on this scale, a therapon of Achilles i.e. a common Greek soldier. The balancing theme about Patrocles and Apollo (Il 15.220) is clearly about the lower ranks. Apollo is a god, it is true, but a nothos, born out of wedlock. See Il 21.435, "Apollo will not fight Poseidon".

13.1 Idomeneus' aristeia

Curiously, it is Poseidon who gets the introduction to the aristeia. This aristeia itself is a remarkable piece. It has hardly any fighting in it, only exhortation and description of the to and fro of battle. Their battle appears to consist mostly of "encouraging others" and it makes me suspect that it is meant as a kind of caricature.

13.1 intro: Poseidon goes to war

Although he is angry, Poseidon himself does not actually do anything except some encouraging. Always he appears to avoid direct conflict with Zeus. Is there a political reality behind this? See here.
Note that Poseidon 1) sets foot on land 2) binds his horses. Two things that Zeus does not do.

13.1 Zeus turns his attention elsewhere

13.6 Abioi: little joke based on a riddle here, from a-bios = without life: "Who are the most just of mankind"? "The Dead, for none of them ever committed a crime".

13.169 death of Poseidon's grandson

Another typical theme: the death of the son of a god. Here, there appear to be no consequences except Poseidon doing some "encouraging from behind". Is Poseidon, the god/forefather behind the Ionian migration, being criticised?
In 13.516- a son of Ares is killed (Idomeneus conveniently left just before that), this will be played out in 15.78-. There is also the poignant death of Zeus' son Sarpedon (16.419-), followed immediately by the killing of Patrocles. See the comments ad loc.

13.206 back at the huts

Always difficult to judge, but I do think this is meant to be a funny episode. Certainly their "defensive boasting" makes me think that the poet knew his heroes pretty well.

13.345-360 Zeus and Poseidon divided

This section about Zeus and Poseidon reads like it could be a contemporary political argument. "Poseidon" (the Ionians, led by the descendants of Neleus) want Troy but Zeus (Fate, reality) says they cannot have it. The mythopoetic explanation for this is that Achilles' boast/promise/prophecy "soon you will need Achilles" must come true, so that he will have honour: the Greeks will be in so much trouble that only an Achilles can save them. As explained on this page, Poseidon's initiative looks like an attempt by a certain family to regain a Kronos-like kingship in Greece, thereby putting an end to the reign of Zeus.

13.354 Zeus was the elder one so Poseidon does not act openly

Zeus was the youngest son, but "Ζεὺς πρότερος γεγόνει" is translatable as "Zeus became first-born. Like Jacob in the Hebrew bible and Kronos himself.

13.556 Antilochos, in his eagerness, always in the middle of the fight

Being a son of Nestor, we can guess where this eagerness comes from.

13.576 Menelaos does the work

Just as in his aristeia (17.1-), Menelaos does most of the work here

13.481 help me against Aeneas who is younger

484 "ὅ τε κράτος ἐστὶ μέγιστον" translated here as [youth,] when a man's strength is greatest. This is incorrect, witness 9.39 where Valour is the greatest force (Il.Comm ad loc). So Youth is the greatest force! But see 9.25 where Zeus is the g.f.

13.660 Paris kills Euchenor

The death of Euchenor ("boaster") is a small, humorous reflection of the Achilles story. The prophecy "you can go with the army and die in battle or stay home and die of a terrible disease" is a father's comment on, or the answer to, mother Thetis' prophecies that accompany Achilles. The terrible disease is of course shame. This is the social emotion that holds all city-states (but Sparta especially) together.

14.33 the ships filling ther space around the mouth of the river

This section could describe Old Smyrna, the "mouth of the shore" being the mouth of the little river Meles (see here.

14.82 Odysseus is angry with Agamemnon for saying that

Odysseus being the favorite of Athena, "Odysseus is angry with Agamemnon" is Homerese for the poet saying "Agamemnon is acting like a fool".

14.103 Agamemnon wants a better plan, Diomedes has one

Here the "sacrifice" of Patrocles is being set up. These very experienced warriors know that the only way to "raise Achilles" (also metaphorically) is to give the enemy a "μάχης ἑτεραλκέα νίκην", a (small) victory which boosts the alkē of the other (your) party. To this day, the mechanism is widely used: if your party is disunited and therefore weaker, provoke the opposition into making a harsh retaliation. Their anger over this may unite your side, to give you a fighting chance.

14.135 Zeus to sleep

If we could cheat Fate - get Zeus to sleep and not seeing what is happening - we would have a chance...

14.147 Poseidon raises a battle cry like 10000 men

"What if we could get all the Ionians to fight together? That way we could raise, say, 9 or 10.000 men". That number sounds about right. It could never have happened though: for one, the Greeks would have had to leave their cities undefended. I think Alexander understood this very well when he set the ships on fire.

14.153 Hera's plan 1: Zeus out of the picture

In this wonderful and important scene, the power of Aphrodite is illustrated. Not through the goddess herself of course, her pro-Trojan position in the story makes that impossible. But Hera only needs Aphrodite's girdle to prove that Zeus, who should rule the goddesses like a man should rule his desires, is not always the stronger or the smarter. It teaches us how eros, for "Helen" or a local substitute, can make even sapient people forget to see clearly.

14.236 close Zeus' eyes for me, I will give you a golden throne

Little joke: Hephaestus, for revenge, made her a throne that bound her when she sat on it.

14.236 Hera: not this time. I will give you one of the Graces

Sleep, too, is swayed by a similar offer ("beauty").

14.361 Counterattack 2

This episode is more or less isomorphic to the "Counterattack 1" of 8.212-, though this one is more successful: only at the very end (15.1-), ominously, do the Trojans stop running. The short mention of Oileus is a foreshadowing of Achilles' rampage.

14.520 but most were killed by Aias son of Oileus

This establishes Oileus, the lesser Aias, as a kind of mini-Achilles. After all, what he does is what Achilles does mostly in his aristeia. In sharp contrast with the greater Aias who is purely a defensive hero.

15.47 Zeus reveals what he has in mind

Basically a re-statement of "Διὸς βουλή", the Plan of Zeus.

15.78 Hera's plan 2: raise Ares in revenge

This foreshadows the raising of Achilles. Here, Athena prevents the raising of Ares, arguing that Zeus will be angry. See the comment on 18.356.

15.220 Hector resumes his attack 2

Note how the more the Achaians are in trouble, the more the poet gives us praise for them. Descriptions of their heroism, their willingness to stand firm increase as the success of the Trojans increases. Always it is emphasised that Hector's successes are only temporary. This is the case everywhere in the poem but especially here where Trojans are most victorious. We can see from this that there is nothing "objective" about Homer's poetry. It clearly implies an audience that is immensely pro-Achaian and the poet is always careful not to insult those feelings. I suppose Hera's reproach of Apollo, his giving "equal honour" to Hector and to Achilles (Il 24.55-), is an indication of the tightrope that the poet is walking vis-à-vis his public. This may not have been so clear in later times when the distance to events was very much greater, but in Homer's time, in Ionia, war with their eastern neighbours was a real threat.

15.610 Zeus grants him honour

The Achilles motif: Zeus' honour, alone against many, short life.

15.668 Nestor urges, Athena makes them see

Now they see what should have been plain all along! Athena is always the one with the clear vision.

16.36 if you will not go for some reason, let me go

Here, by way of Patrocles, Homer tells us the secret reason Achilles refused the gifts and the reconciliation. He still holds on to Athena's promise of "success in war", which implies at least surviving.

16.36 let me go

16.39 "..that I may become a light to the Achaians". Homeric irony again. Indeed he got what he wanted.

16.60 but we cannot stay angry forever

Here Achilles again utters what becomes an unacceptable statement in the polis-based world which is dawning: "I will not join the battle until the fighting reaches my own ships", i.o.w. I will fight only for myself, not for others.

16.64 so put on my armour and go to battle

Achilles is like Idomeneus here: he lets his therapon do the fighting for him: he himself gets the honour and none of the risk. My guess is that this sort of thing was a common source of smirking commentary in those days: high aristocrats, who are by their own ideology the fighting force par excellence, may have had a tendency to let others do the dangerous jobs for them, or refusing to let their sons go into battle (see Zeus and Hera's conversation on the fate of Sarpedon, Il 16.444-).

16.83 follow my orders

Here Patrocles (=Achilles) is defined as a defensive hero, "chase the Trojans away and then return. Do not go waging war on the plain." See Mimnermus.

16.112 Hector cuts the head off Aias' spear

Showing again how much battle is a manliness contest.

16.131 Patrocles puts on the armour

This act makes it extra clear that Patrocles is "an Achilles", as is Hector. Like a snake, they put on the "skin" of Achilles.

16.139 but he does not take Achilles' spear

The symbolism of "spear" comes to the foreground now. "The spear that no other could wield, but Achilles could do it easily". Patrocles is of course not quite the man Achilles is. He is a sheep in wolves' clothing. His proper name should be "Elpenor" (Hopeful), the one who forgot, when rising, that his feet were not on the ground.

16.152 and the mortal horse Pedasos

Pedasos the trace-horse, a really poignant metaphor. A trace-horse is an extra horse yoked beside the other two, to help pull in difficult situations. Being mortal, trace-horses die: see Il 8.80-, 16.466-, just as Patrocles will die. And, extending the metaphor: when Achilles goes to war, his mortal horse is already dead.

16.152 calling out the Myrmidons

The Myrmidons function like a private army, a band led by a landowner-patron consisting of his dependants. They obey him, no one else. In the political setup of the polis, this is no longer possible.

16.239 I stay here, but I send my comrade out to fight

This prayer, if uttered by any Greek in the later city states, would be very much "οὐ θέμις" (not done). Though Homer does not say anything, this goes against the fundamentals of polis ethics which the Iliad is trying to establish. This error is the cause of Patrocles' death and therefore of Achilles' shame.

16.242 grant him victory over Hector

Patrocles and the Myrmidons are "θεράποντες Ἀχιλῆος". Therapon = squire, companion, worshipper, servant (LSJ) - it is a hierarchical relation. The same way bravehearts in Achaea are proud to call themselves "θεράποντες Ἄρηος": servants of Ares.

16.419 Death of Zeus' son Sarpedon

Re-occurrence of the theme "death of the son of a god" also seen in Il 13.169- (death of Poseidon's grandson), 13.516- and 15.109- (death of Ares' son). It is never stated that Patroclus' fate has any connection to his killing of Sarpedon but the prominence of the event and its position just before Patroclus' death suggests that there is a significant theme here. Sarpedon may have been an important Lycian hero in Homer's time but little is known about this.

16.444 If you save your son, other gods will want to save theirs

This sounds like it could have been an issue in the emerging polis: high aristocrats having to choose between the good of the family (protecting their sons, having an heir) and the good of the city (doing their duty).

16.705 the 4th time, Apollo warns him: you will not take Troy

Try three times; if then you haven't succeeded, stop. But see 16.784- Apollo warns him, like to an Elpenor, to keep his feet on the ground.
There is also the political warning to his fellow Ionians: Zeus is not with you: leave off Troy (for now).

16.783 Patrocles kills 3 times 9 men

The amount of victims flags Homeric overstatement here. The translation is: you can try the impossible three times, but do not try a fourth.

16.855 Patrocles' soul goes to Hades

Not coincidentally, 855-7 and 22.361-3 (death of Hector) are the same.

17.1 Menelaos' Aristeia

This is just the traditional name for book 17 and I agree with it. Though it is not a formal aristeia it is for the most important part about Menelaos, contrasting with his brother's abortive aristeia in 11.1-284. Menelaos is the reason Agamemnon organized this war and he is relatively young and inexperienced. I am sure he never guessed how it would turn out: almost getting overwhelmed while fighting to recover the body of his friend. He is not the strongest of fighters but he does an excellent job here.

17.389 like men stretching a great ox-hide

Just a guess: could this be how they prepared a hide for writing when Homer dictated the poems to his student-rhapsodes?

17.420 neither do the Trojans

421-2: an explanation of the ancient-sounding formula ὁμοιΐου πτολέμοιο, translated by me as "equal war". "If it is the fate of all of us to be killed [...] equally..." See also Il 14.85-6

17.567 Athena gives him strength

Menelaos does what Diomedes did and what Agamemnon should have done: pray to (rely on) the goddess Athena.

17.567 Athena gives him strength

Menelaos: brave, but not strong.

18.1 III: The Mortal Hero

Here is a major transition, from the body of the chimaera to its tail. The action of the narrative goes on without a pause so it is hard to know where to draw the line here. But I think the ancients who created the division of the books got it right: here at 18.1 the focus changes from the battle to Achilles.
The snake is a fitting metaphor of Achilles: it is a feared and deadly animal (Il 3.30-) and it lives forever: it just sheds its skin and lives on in a new skin. So it is with Achilles: just as in the Iliad there are several Achillesses (Patrocles, Hector, Antilochos), so there will be in reality. He both dies and is immortal: a half-god.

18.1 III: The Mortal Hero

In the E&A parts of "the Mortal Hero", Achilles is effectively dead already. The poet does not want to go there and has Patrocles and Hector die for him by proxy. It is impossible to know what exactly the existing stories were in Homer's time but the events in the Aethiopis must have been known to the public: Achilles taking revenge for Antilochos, then going too far and getting killed by Paris. I feel free to ignore any, possibly later, elaborations to the story that are not referred to or hinted at by Homer.

18.1 Antilochos brings the news, mourning

In the Aethiopis Antilochos gets killed after saving his father Nestor's life. He is really a tragic figure and a fitting one to bring the news to Achilles: the youngest and bravest of all the Achaians but his father does not seem to notice him. Nestor seems to prefer Diomedes (Il 9.52-). See also Il 8.78- for a possible reference to this story.

18.70 Thetis: why are you weeping? Surely Zeus has fulfilled your wish

"μή ποτε δῶρον δέξασθαι πὰρ Ζηνὸς Ὀλυμπίου" (Hesiod W&D 86-) This should teach Epimetheus to "never accept gifts from Olympian Zeus".

18.78 Achilles: what good is that to me? I have lost Patrocles

"τὸν ἀπώλεσα", "I have lost him" or "I have killed him". Again the wordplay with ap-ollumi as if the poet is taking personal responsibility for Patrocles' death.

18.86 I wish I had never been born

Here Achilles utters this implicit statement, referred to in the "contest of Homer and Hesiod". See here. In this text, the second option was "..but being born, to die as soon as possible". Here in 18.98 we have the "αὐτίκα τεθναίην", "may I die now".

18.181 Achilles: Iris, which of the gods sent you?

See 18.356- (Zeus to Hera: "so, you have raised Achilles"). This extraordinary scene I think is meant to explain to the listener that what we may think, and tell ourselves, comes from Zeus (i.e. we are acting in the name of Justice) may in fact be coming from another god. The dilemma of "know thyself".

18.243 Hector decides his fate

"αἰτία ἑλομένου. θεὸς ἀναίτιος" (Pl.Rep.617E) or, to use another citation: "ἀγηνορίη δέ μιν ἔκτα" (Il 12.46)

18.356 divine comment

Remarkably, Zeus says the raising of Achilles is Hera's doing, as if it was not really part of the Plan of Zeus. See here for a discussion of the subject.

18.369 embassy: A shield for Achilles

This wonderful episode seems to me to fall outside of the structure. Admittedly, all of the Embassy & Assembly 3 is hard to categorize into a ring structure. For the reason I deem the Shield a later addition, though by the poet himself, see the comment on 18.372.

18.372 She finds him creating tripods

If Homer was the founder of the Homeridae and he had a "school" for rhapsodes, this detail about Hephaistos is significant. He creates tripods - what you get if you win a poetry contest -, 20 of them stand by the wall of the house - as typically a basileus and his audience -, they are able to go by themselves to the "assemblies of the gods" (religious festivals?) and come back again, they only need "their ears fixed" (!). Together with the Proteus episode (Od 4.382-, esp. 411-) this makes me believe that the poet had a group of followers around him whom he taught to sing his poetry.

18.541 Ploughing

The metaphorical link between ploughing and writing is established elsewhere, but here another element is introduced: the gold turning black. This could be a description of the impact of his poetry as desired by Homer: first it all seems wonderful, going out to win honour, being an Achilles, exact revenge for Helen, capture women...
But it soon changes into a nightmare when Zeus is against you and the other side starts winning battles. For this, see also Menelaos' aristeia and in Il 5.354, Aphrodite's golden skin turning black.

18.558 they were having a meal under a tree

Is there some socio-economic observation or even criticism here? The owner and his people getting meat, the workers getting porridge?

18.567 children were carrying the grapes, a boy was singing

The singing boy with his lyre: hard not to see self-reflection in there.

19.12 The Myrmidons are stunned, Achilles is aroused

On the shield life itself is depicted, with its positive and negative aspects. Why do the Achaians fear to look upon it? See here.

19.95 birth of Heracles

Now he has to work for the king. But Achilles is not precisely like Heracles: Heracles is a servant who "ought to be" a king. Achilles is a king who "ought to be" a servant. The difference is perhaps that Heracles is a child from a downward relation (from the male p.o.v.): a god (Zeus) with a mortal woman. Achilles is a spawn from an upward relation: a mortal man with a goddess.

19.215 Odysseus: we must have a meal

Possibly there is a discussion on hunting behind this: if you feed your dogs before the hunt, they will have more stamina but they will be less fierce. If you let them hunt while hungry, they will be extremely fierce but they may refuse to give up the prey (which is what happens).

19.221 men soon get tired if the losses are greater than the gains

A difficult metaphor, see Il.comm. ad loc. My shot at a paraphrase: "Men soon have their fill of slaughter (=reaping) when there is a lot of chaff falling to the ground, and the rewards are least when Zeus turns the scales".

19.357 Achilles' aristeia

Achilles' aristeia: not just the violence comes to a climax; also the pathos of the victims. My view is that it is a gigantic overstatement, just like the killing of the suitors in the Odyssey, and it is meant to be perceived as such by the public. Perhaps only when the initial excitement is over and critical thinking sets in...

19.357 intro: arming and marching out

Here comes the beauty (in Greek terms) that is the gift the goddess gives him. This is all he can have. Is it a choice? It does not look like one and he is not happy about it, but Homer shows that all his actions, he did choose to do freely by himself. He is going to die for it and he knows it: this makes him beautiful (kalos) beyond compare.

19.380 puts on the helmet

See Il 2.871- for the narrator's opinion on Nastes the Carian who went to battle decked out with gold, "like a girl".

20.1 The gods may help you...

1: the gods help (20.1-)

• the gods do take part in the battle (without them, the Achaians win easily)
• Apollo inspires Aeneas ( - is that helping? Pos. asks the same question 20.333)
• Poseidon, untypically, saves Aeneas (He will not help Achilles - Hera will not help Pos.)
• Apollo helps Hector
• Achilles against the river - but Hephaistos saves him
• Apollo saving Agenor

• Apollo deceives Achilles (helping Hector)
• Apollo deserts Hector
• Athena (Deiphobos) deceives Hector (22.299 ἐμὲ δ' ἐξαπάτησεν Ἀθήνη)
• and again, with the spear

20.41 Without the gods, the Trojans would have no chance

This is a recurrence of a theme in Diomedes' aristeia: see 4.457 "War, with the gods taking part" (see there) and 6.1 "The gods have left, the men fight on" where the Achaians do all the killing.

21.1 Achilles fights the river

Why a river, and why is it divine?
All through history, people lived where there was freshwater. Rivers and springs were truly life-giving, thus divine, entities and empires and kingdoms were built on them. Great kings have rivers, small ones have springs. The greater the river, the greater the king (Nile, Euphrates). Smyrna had only a very small river (the Meles), a brook really. Nearby were two large rivers (Hermus and Maeandros) with their fertile plains. This was the prize they had their eye on.

22.25 Achilles radiant like the Dog Star

Homer never preaches, but he shows the good and bad of everything almost always without comment. Here the narrator gives us a rare insight in his true evaluation of Achilles. Sirius, the Dog Star: "λαμπρότατος μὲν ὅ γ' ἐστί, κακὸν δέ τε σῆμα τέτυκται" (the brightest one, but set as a baneful sign) . Our hero is a star, the word still works. I always wonder if the new star that the wise men followed to Bethlehem was a conscious replacement of Achilles, the old star. Educated Greek speakers must have known the metaphor.

22.208 the 4th time around, Zeus raises his scales, Apollo leaves him

Why did Apollo, the patron of this poem, abandon Hector?
"οὐδέ τι δαιτὸς ἐσθλῆς ἔσσεται ἦδος, ἐπεὶ τὰ χερείονα νικᾷ" (Il 1.575) Hephaistos to Hera, "the meal will not be delightful, if the worse wins". This is something the poet is very aware of. After all, "ἀεὶ ϕιλέλλην ὀ ποιητής" according to ancient commentators. Even if an angry Apollo seems pro-Trojan, it is the Greeks he cares about.

22.355 Hector warns him of the anger of the gods

Telemachos hopes to string the bow and "διοϊστεύσειν τε σιδήρου" (Od 21.114). As we see here (357), Achilles has a thumos of iron...

22.361 Death of Hector

See Death of Patrocles, 16.855-7.

22.381 should we attack the city itself, see if they defend

Militarily and politically, this is the main point of the Iliad: he tells the Ionians to defend their cities and leave it at that. Do not try for Troy (Sardis) itself. Achilles tells them this and Achilles is a defensive hero.

22.391 let us sing a healing song for we have killed Hector.

See also Il 1.473, 5.899; A paieon (paean) is a healing song and a military victory is a kind of healing: it takes away the fear and suffering that goes with war. We might call the Iliad an attempt at homoeopathic healing: but Achilles has not been healed yet.

23.69 bury me quickly, they will not let me cross the river

"μίσγεσθαι ὑπὲρ ποταμοῖο" has a double meaning in Greek which is much to the point (and funny) in my interpretation of the Iliad (ref. the Wrath of Apollo). So: to mingle with the dead across the Styx, or to have sex across the (Hermus) river. μίσγεσθαι: to mix, to mingle but also to have sex.

23.199 Iris goes to the house of Zephyros

A little light-heartedness, no doubt to relieve the tension of what must be a very emotional scene for Homer's audience. Cf. on a larger scale: the seduction of Zeus by Hera in the middle of the fiercest battle.

23.306 Nestor's advice to Antilochos

An important metaphor signifying that victory lies between "not going far enough" and "going too far" (334-). This is a major theme of the "Plan of Zeus" theme (Il 11.1-18.1) and also of the Diomedes example. Typically, for heroes like Nestor and Diomedes, this is the easiest thing in the world.

23.822 The Achaians stop the fight but give the prize to Diomedes

Poor Aias, he never wins anything.

24.22 the gods urge Hermes to steal the body

It is unclear to me what metaphor the poet is using here.

24.27 they still hate Troy, because of Paris

Here is where Paris gets his "μαχλοσύνην ἀλεγεινήν", his "terrible lewdness". This is a word supposedly only said of women but if we just take it to mean "making oneself overly attractive to the other sex" it fits well with the picture of Paris in the Iliad.

24.39 you all take the side of savage Achilles

"aidōs" is a hard word to translate. I stick to "shame" (although its field of meaning is wider) because of its power and its positive and negative connotations which are stated here in lines 44 and 45. Instead of the given translation, I would say "[...] and he does not know shame, which so much harms and benefits men". This is a major topic of the Iliad, witness Achilles and Hector.

24.55 Hera attacks Apollo, Zeus judges

"You are supposed to be one of us, yet you give Hector equal honour". If my take on Homer is anywhere near realistic, he must have made a lot of people angry in his day. Calling him a "νοῦσος" (Il 1.10, Od 9.411) would be the least of it.

24.64 Zeus: they will not be equal, but Hector was dear to me

To Achilles the honour, but to Hector the love.

24.77 the Will of Zeus

The Will of Zeus: it is not what you like or desire, it is what you know you have to do. The voice of your mother tells you what this is.

24.169 Iris gives Zeus' message

My hypothesis is that this message from Zeus is the private epiphany of the author we call Homer and that this describes the purpose (melt Achilles' heart) and the method (an immeasurable ransom, the Iliad itself) of the poem. Lines 24.173-4 are the same as those used by the Evil Dream on Agamemnon (2.26) but this is the real Iris, not a false dream. Accordingly, the Iliad both aims to punish and to protect the Achaians. Or, more accurately, to protect his countrymen by punishing them in song. This is the "wrath of Apollo" see 1.37.

24.448 Achilles' hut

Homer often calls the place where the Achaians live "the ships", but they actually live in huts as described here. See here.

24.331 Zeus sends Hermes

Hermes here must be the god of "going unseen". This fits in with his appearance in the Odyssey, sending Odysseus on his way. See also 24.531 and 24.649.

24.477 Priam's plea

The theme that links this with the "Niobe" theme of 596 is the killing of children and the poignancy of that.

24.527 Zeus gives mixed gifts

Plato really disliked this kind of metaphor but it is at the heart of Homer's theology.

24.531 he who receives only the bad will be a miserable, honourless wanderer

Another one of the innumerable mentions of exile. This, in archaic society, was probably considered a "fate worse than death": the exile is "nobody". βούβρωστις is translated by LSJ as "ravenous appetite", an apt irony for an aoidos who travelled from feast meal to feast meal.

24.559 Achilles: do not vex me, I do what my divine mother told me

Achilles will only listen to his mother, just like Skylla (Od 12.124-).

24.596 even Niobe must eat

- it starts with a small offense (a "nikē heteralkēs") - Like the initial speech by Achilles in the quarrel of bk. 1, Niobe says something that is true in itself but need not have been spoken in such a way. - even the most upright of gods can get angry if you do this.
Then the small thing escalates into a ridiculously large slaughter.

24.649 Achilles: you must sleep outside, Agamemnon should not know you are here

Another exile metaphor, together with a possible explanation of the pseudonym "Homer": a travelling bard who is also an exile from a rich and powerful family, would potentially be a profitable hostage.

24.723 Andromache

There is not much exoneration in the speech of Hector's wife. He did have a choice, after all: he could have come back.